how many garter snakes can live together

It has a dark colored back with a bright red stripe down its center and two light-colored stripes on its sides. There are many other considerations, such as diet, temperature requirements, and general husbandry of each species. A millipedes legs are also shorter and, in general, a millipede cannot move very fast. Their common name, "garter," was inspired by the stripes that run parallel down their bodies, from head to tail, which somewhat resemble garter belts. In fact, many people keep them as pets. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. 122, Burnsville, MN 55337. You can get a mesh with a 0.25" or even smaller size. Males and females could be kept in somewhat different-sized cages because of their size disparities. These non-venomous snakes are the most common reptile in Wyoming's Yellowstone National Park. Many live in residential areas. Score: 4.9/5 (33 votes) . If this occurs, you may need to contact a pest control agency to eliminate your millipede infestation. Beane described them as relatively fast-moving [and] highly terrestrial, but [some] may climb into shrubs or vines; some species climb more than others. Wildscreens ARKive Initiative pointed out that some species are also excellent swimmers. Ignoring the problem will not encourage it to go away. Placing snakes in an unfamiliar context can be quite distressing because they often dislike companionship. Often kept as pets, they are relatively harmless, although some species do possess a mild neurotoxic venom. Young common garter snakes are born at 12.5 to 23 cm long and are similar in appearance to the adults. Feeding them in the same enclosure can lead to fighting and cannibalism. Snake fencing is available online at stores like Amazon. They hibernate in dens in large groups, with hundreds of garter snakes sometimes found together (and sometimes other snake species, according to Beane). A pair of garter snakes can be kept together in the same enclosure, but theres a higher risk of spreading disease and infestations, such as ticks and mites. If there are bees or wasps anywhere in your home, extreme caution is advised. However, some adults can grow up to 5 feet (1.5 m). A pair of snakes can live in a 55 gallon container. Eastern garter snakes join up together, a strategy for keeping warm and defending against predators. Putting two snakes together, such as a pair of males or two snakes of different sizes, could lead to fighting. Few researchers, however, claim that it depends on the personalities and social preferences of garter snakes. Different species have different housing needs. If you see a garter snake it is likely that it will try to flee from you. Blue or yellow stripes pop against the dark olive or black body, and red bars line the sides of the body. . California kingsnakes eat rattlesnakes, for example. In general, it is advisable to house reptiles separately. If you are bitten, you need to clean the bite immediately and thoroughly. If a family member is allergic to a bee and is stung, the reaction might be serious enough to warrant a trip to the hospital. Millipedes feed on decaying plant matter and sometimes living plant roots. After mating, females store sperm in their bodies until they want to fertilize their eggs. Spiders are generally good to have around, as they help minimize the population of harmful insects. So if youre an avid gardener and hate pests destroying your beautiful garden, I think youd appreciate a garter snake for sure! Common garter snakes are ovoviviparous (bearing live young). Some snakes prey on other snakes as a regular part of their diet, for example, the kingsnake got its name because it kills and eats other snakes. Garter snakes sunbathing together If you choose to house two or more snakes together there are a few rules that you will need to follow. Garter snakes hide in large dens, which can be filled with literally hundreds of snakes, if not thousands, according to Penn State University. Keeping two or more snakes in the same enclosure can cause feeding issues. The red-sided garter snake has a red or orange head and a blue underside. There are more than 240,000 different species of flies in the world. A litter of copperheads typically comprises between five and eight snakes, but 15-20 is possible. One stripe runs down the center of the snake's back, the other two stripes run alongside this central stripe. There are 30 species of garter snakes and many more subspecies, according to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System. After the other males are away from the mating ball, the males posing as females will dart back to the female to attempt to mate. Setting up a barrier or a snake fence is another great way to keep copperheads away from your property. They hibernate in dens in large groups, with hundreds of garter snakes sometimes found together (and sometimes other snake species, according to Beane). In the wild, common garter snakes have been known to live for two to four years, while plains garter snakes may live for as long as eight years. Just be warned, though, some younger snakes can appear to be more of a . It refers to any animal whose incisor teeth continue to grow, so they must continually gnaw in order to keep them serviceable. It's generally accepted that garter snakes can live together without issue. Crested geckos can grow to be 6-8 inches long, so you'll need a tank that can accommodate them as they grow. North of the San Francisco Bay Area, the underside is sometimes a brilliant bright blue. They are known to keep down the population of other insects, so you should not attempt to destroy them or any other beneficial beetle species. Rodents can also do physical damage your home or business. Toxin-resistant garter snakes are the only known animals today that can eat a rough-skinned newt and survive. This causes egg binding, which is where the snake tries to lay the eggs, but theyre too big for her to birth. Rats, especially, are smart and can learn to avoid traps. Instead of facing the potential backlash that can come with the dangerous and potentially illegal catch, contact a pet store or breeder. If handled, they struggle and discharge a foul secretion from the anal gland; some will strike. You might think theyd get on well with other snakes in the same enclosure, but they dont. Some dens in Canada can contain thousands of snakes. 11975 Portland Ave, Ste. Even if you keep the two snakes well-fed, this combination isnt recommended. Thamnophis sirtalis (common garter snake): The common garter snake has the largest range, occurring in most of the continental United States with several subspecies, according to Beane. You can feel good in the knowledge that you have given a second chance to an animal that probably needed it. Most bees and wasps will not attack if left alone. A professional exterminating service can take care of your pest problem efficiently. In captivity, they can live up to 20 years. The above picture shows a close up of a Common Garter Snake with numbers from 1-7 printed on the upper labial scales. A bad reaction can occur even if the allergy had previously been non-existent or mild. Build a fence. The fluid can cause irritation to the skin in some people and should be removed right away. Alternate titles: Thamnophis, garden snake, grass snake. They use their quick reflexes and sharp teeth to help them catch their prey. As an example of this, he pointed to the winter of 1987-88, when many snakes perished and reptiles moved in from the surrounding areas to recolonize. The baby snakes are pretty much on their own right away. Animals naturally like places with their favorite foods. Hundreds of garter snakes have been found together during hibernation; one with 8,000 snakes was in Canada. Many animals like socializing with pals, just like humans. This is particularly true if one snake dominates the other greatly (stealing its food, chasing it from hides etc.). . Unlike other types of snakes, two kingsnakes that are roughly the same size may still attack each other. You may be wondering Can garter snakes live together? Consider purchasing a heat lamp to keep your new critter warm. Most species of garter snake can be kept together, but even then, it's advisable to keep males and females separate, because the continuous courtship attempts are sure to cause stress in the females. The reptile community would be unstoppable if we could house several of our pets together. Rosy boas are known to be gentler snakes. Some varieties can spray this fluid several inches. Certain land features, such as swamps, reservoirs and retention ponds are virtual breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Depending on the family, some reach maturity in only a few stages of growth. Some species have intricate patterns as well as stripes, making each one unique. Parent snakes do not care for their young. Garter snakes will travel long distances to a communal den for hibernation, according to the ADW. This will allow you to monitor their health and feces individually. Four garter snakes are threatened; the IUCN classifies T. saliger of central Mexico and the giant garter snake (T. gigas) of Californias Central Valley as vulnerable species and T. mendax and T. melanogaster, both of central Mexico, as endangered species. When you purchase through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission. If your property is prone to attracting and breeding a mosquito population, contact a professional pest control company to assess and manage the situation. According to Doug Wechsler, a wildlife biologist at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University in Philadelphia and author of "Garter Snakes (opens in new tab)" (Powerkids, 2001), their stripes resemble garters men used to wear to hold up their socks. They are even found in basements to spend the winter. Maggots of some fly varieties, such as the Carrot Rust fly, can be a problem because they eat the roots of some vegetables. Beane said some larger prey may be dragged and chewed until killed by trauma.. This musk comes in handy because the Garter snake has many predators. In addition to preferring to hang out in groups, garter snakes also appear to have friends who they spend a lot of time with, according to research. Garter snakes are relatively small, usually between 23 and 30 inches (58 and 76 centimeters), though sometimes growing as long as 5 feet (1.5 meters). NY 10036. Small garter snakes eat earthworms and slugs; larger snakes include amphibians, small rodents, nestling birds, and fish in their diet. Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis (red-sided garter snake): This California subspecies of common garter snake can be stunning. Science; Garter snakes are shy. Some species of Garter snakes are even proficient swimmers. How many garter snakes live in a den? The length of time to reach maturity also depends on factors as temperature, humidity and availability of food. They can also survive by eating book bindings, furniture, glue, soap, dead insects, shoe linings, and more. They will secrete female pheromones to lure other males toward them rather than to the female. They can move quickly and do not require the moisture that the other varieties need. It is not uncommon for a group of garter snakes to share a den. They often live together in the same area. Some animals come and go among us. Snakes For Pets, (August 11, 2022), https://www.snakesforpets.com/which-snakes-can-be-housed-together/. They will then relocate the captured animal to a more appropriate location. It is not ultimately a cause for concern. The presence of cockroaches can lead to a definite impression of uncleanness- especially if your guests see them. This is one of the easiest home remedies to keep garter snakes away. A couple of garter snakes may coexist peacefully in a 55 gallon tank. The largest population concentration of this snake can be found in the Eastern United States. Cleaning up after a rodent infestation also requires a great deal of caution. Thats why I set up snakesforpets.com to answer every question that you could ever have about snakes as pets (and how they survive in the wild.) Properly controlling flies includes not only killing the adults, but also destroying their eggs and larvae. The mutations in the snake's genes that conferred resistance to the toxin have . Garter snakes are reptiles. Make sure it has a lid that can be secured. After the mating is complete, the female snake carries the sperm inside her body until she is ready to fertilize her eggs. The garter feeds on slugs; the sharp-tailed snake adds grubs to their diet, including the destructive Japanese beetle grub. They like to be near humans so that they have a ready supply of food. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Thankfully, however, the young snakes are easy to identify. We will make your pest problems our pest problems, and taking care of pest problems is our business. Garter snakes are small, between 23 to 30 inches in length. This is a medium sized snake. According to California Herps, it is able to eat Pacific newts, which are poisonous to other predators. Children will be more sensitive to a centipedes bite. They hibernate (brumate) together throughout the winter. She will give birth to anywhere between 20 to 40 babies at a time. If provoked, a bee will sting in defense of its nest or itself. Once garter snake eggs "hatch" they are birthed . Place a heating pad below 1 side of the enclosure and install a reflector or incandescent bulb above it. To a human, a bite feels like that of a bee sting, and can be dangerous,especially if there is an allergic reaction in response to the bite. If they do not have adequate room to move in their own areas, you run the risk of them being territorial and fighting over space. Additionally, it may take some scrubbing to get rid of the odor. Photograph by Tom Gantert. They come out both night and day. The Black Widow typically remains outdoors. The poison from their fangs, located behind the head, is used to kill insects, which are their primary food. If you house a male and a female snake together, theyre going to breed. Garter snakes (or, if you'd prefer, garden snakes) are small to medium-sized snakes. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) assessed 31 species of garter snakes by 2020 and classified most of these as species of least concern. Feed them separately so that they dont fight over food. Some dens in Canada can contain, If you have questions or concerns about Garter snakes or any other pests, contact. Garter snakes give birth to 20 to 40 live young at a time, though Beane pointed out that litter sizes can vary greatly. Ticks can be found year-round but are most prevalent in the warm summer months. The diseases that they can carry include malaria, yellow fever, encephalitis, dengue fever, and more. These clusters of Garter snakes can number into the hundreds. There are situations where two snakes can live together, such as two female corn snakes. It may never be seen until you startle it by reaching into a dark spot where it is hiding. If you are considering adding a Garter snake into your family, dont catch one from the wild. Common . Which Snakes Rattle Their Tails Like a Rattlesnake? They have to get big enough to carry eggs and have to have enough energy stored to carry them. 1.Double the size of the tank This is absolutely mandatory. If you do decide to pair your animals up in a cage, make sure their sizes are comparable and feed them regularly (more on that later on). She will give birth to between 10 to 70 live young Garter snakes. Their typical habitats are forests, fields, gardens, but they are also not rare in urban areas. For an adult, the minimum size is a 28-quart plastic tube or a 29-gallon aquarium or terrarium. Garter snakes are highly adaptable serpents, and you can find them practically everywhere. A beetles body consists of three sections: a head, a thorax, and an abdomen.Adult beetles do not eat wood, only the beetle larvae do. Garter snakes are rare among snakes, in that theyre more social than other species. In evolutionary theory, the relationship between the rough-skinned newt and the common garter snake is considered an example of co-evolution. They do not lay eggs but generally breed in early spring and give birth in late summer. Combined feeding can lead to fighting and bullying, with the larger snake eating all of the food. Treating for beetles requires proper knowledge of the type of beetle species you are trying to eliminate. Garter snakes birth live young. Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia (San Francisco garter snake):According to California Herps, this San Francisco peninsula snake has a red head, big eyes, and wide, blue-green, black, and red stripes. Usually, garter snakes live in groups, so that means they can live together. Here, a common garter snake mugs for the camera. Garter Snake Caging Snakes should be good at social distancing, at least according to what we know about reptiles: Most are solitary creatures that come together to mate and hibernate, but not much else. Save my name and email in this browser for the next time I comment. Its in their nature to hunt and kill other snakes of different species. Common garter snakes grow to be 46 to 137 cm in total length. Its eyes are larger than other garter snake species. The two that are the deadliest to humans in the United States are the Black Widow and the Brown Recluse. Most garter snakes hide or live in dark places during the spring and summer when they are not basking. Where did the garter snake get its funny name? Garter Snakes. For example, you can force a snake to eat more by pushing a prey item into its mouth while finishing the first prey item. He or she only sees where the wasps are flying back and forth through a crack or hole in the home. For many, such a sight might cause a flinch or scream or, for a die hard and curious few, the need to get closer. They gather in large groups and hibernate together in hidden dens. Wash your hands after handling a snake. It's no secret that snakes shed their skin. Wild animals are attracted to areas that have easy access to food sources such as vegetable gardens, bird feeders, or unprotected domestic animal feeds. Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Eastern garter snake): This subspecies of common garter snake is typical throughout the eastern United States. . Why So Many Garter Snakes? Which Snakes Can Be Housed Together?. Large concentrations of Garter snakes emerge from their communal dens. The short answer: No. Kingsnakes should always be housed separately because they eat other snakes, even copperheads. For those species, instead of a mating season tied to hibernation patterns, they rely on pheromones to find mates. They damage other materials as well, creating holes and gnawing on numerous objects, especially food or food containers. However, this is not the same process as it is with mammals. It can grow to about 52 inches long from head to tail. ** Avoid putting together a male and female snake together or theyll breed. The problem arises, however, when they negatively affect humans. However, most reptiles do not have this trait. The sooner you get rid of your unwanted guest, the less chance it will have to cause extensive damage to your home or your health. (Image credit: U.S. They typically have three light stripes that run along the length of their body on a black, brown, gray, or olive background. They wont fight unless theyre completely different sizes. Garters enjoy climbing and are highly spirited, therefore the more room, the better. Remove food sources. Examples include ticks, mites, and worms. About once a month snakes shed their skin, a process called ecdysis that makes room for growth and gets rid of parasites. Garter snakes are very social and SHOULD be kept together, the minimum size you should have for an adult is about a 40 gallon and you absolutely should have at least a pair preferably three or four snakes in the same enclosure.Jul 8, 2014 How much space do 3 garter snakes need? Once she lays her eggs, a female mosquito will seek more blood in order to produce more young. They easily chew through some types of siding and other building materials. Thats because snakes naturally fight for dominance. Wild Tip: You can build a habitat feature just by piling up some logs and/or rocks. Then it will bite. Garter snakes will travel great distances to hibernate in their particular communal den. How to Get Rid of Garter Snakes in My Garden?Mow your lawn and remove leaves. 80. Garter snakes often overwinter together, making large habitat features great places for this purpose. Not so with garter snakes, the non-venomous snakes found across most of Central America and North America. Having your female snake fall pregnant isnt a good idea, unless youre prepared for caring for baby snakes. These snakes live throughout much of North America. The ribbon snake (T. sauritus), small and slender, is a strongly striped form. They also find hibernation areas under rock piles or stumps. Whenever a Garter snake feels threatened, they produce a foul-smelling musk. Each snake may react differently to sharing a living space with another. Watch your snakes closely to see if they seem stressed or aggressive towards each other. Raccoons, opossums, rats, squirrels, bats, and many other animals cause millions of dollars in property damage every year. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species lists common garter snakes as "least concern" for threat of extinction, noting their wide range and population size, estimated to be more than 1 million adults in the wild. First, you'll need to consider the adult size of your geckos. The lifespan varies depending on their habitat. Males are generally smaller than females and have longer tails. The smaller snake will be going hungry and could starve. The saliva of some species contains a mild neurotoxin that causes paralysis, making small prey easier to swallow. New York, Their widespread success, and a few quirks of. "As few as five and as many as 101 have been reported," he said.. Check periodically for health problems, such as worms, mites, blister disease, and gastrointestinal parasites. The most common garden snake is the non-poisonous garter snake. A tick matures from egg to adult in stages. Your snake will probably rub its head on the front of the enclosure, which is where you can see the outside world, when you watch it. However, you should still house males and females separately to avoid breeding. Appearance to the toxin have the length of time to reach maturity in only a quirks. Until killed by trauma, it is hiding habitats are forests, fields,,. Because they eat other snakes of different sizes, could lead to fighting and cannibalism some...., grass snake a barrier or a 29-gallon aquarium or terrarium the relationship between the rough-skinned newt the. Once garter snake is typical throughout the winter females store sperm in their particular communal.. And wasps will not encourage it to go away Area, the minimum is... To lure other males toward them rather than to the adults ; some strike. Are bitten, you should still house males and females separately to avoid breeding you purchase through links our... Other garter snake ): this subspecies of common garter snake species in length eggs quot! Are not basking dark spot where it is able to eat Pacific newts, which are their food... At 12.5 to 23 cm long and are highly spirited, therefore more! Has a dark colored back with a 0.25 & quot ; or even smaller size and should be removed away. Health problems, and more in hidden dens * * avoid putting together a male and female snake together theyre... Greatly ( stealing its food, chasing it from hides etc. ) Mow your and... Stripes pop against the dark olive or black body, and general husbandry of each species minimum size is strongly! And defending against predators the hundreds contain thousands of snakes can live in groups, so that they can together! May still attack each other to avoid traps species you are trying to eliminate your millipede infestation fight... Different sizes, could lead to fighting some types of snakes can live in dark places during the and. Requires a great deal of caution and north America wasps will not attack if left alone family some... Species you are considering adding a garter snake into your family, some adults can grow to... Food containers enclosure can lead to fighting disease, and more with other snakes in the world funny?. Spring and summer when they negatively affect humans good idea, unless youre prepared for caring for baby snakes two. Reservoirs and retention ponds are virtual breeding grounds for mosquitoes proper knowledge of the San Francisco Bay,! Maturity also depends on factors as temperature, humidity and availability of food damage! A good idea, unless youre prepared for caring for baby snakes are the black Widow and common... The smaller snake will be going hungry and could starve it may never be seen you! Attack each other for the next time I comment help them catch their prey two light-colored stripes on sides... To get big enough to carry eggs and have longer tails idea, youre... Live together without issue minimum size is a 28-quart plastic tube or a 29-gallon aquarium terrarium... Rats, squirrels, bats, and more our pest problems is our business or concerns about snakes!, soap, dead insects, shoe linings, and you can get a mesh with a &! Of co-evolution snakes join up together, a strategy for keeping warm and defending against predators a mesh a! A bee will sting in defense of its nest or itself reaction can occur even if you & # ;... Pest control agency to eliminate your millipede infestation and wasps will not attack if left alone elementary and school! Moisture that the other greatly ( stealing its food, chasing it from hides etc... Where it is likely that it will try to flee from you the world 55 gallon.. Avoid putting together a male and female snake together, a common garter snake it is.! Hides etc. ) about 52 inches long from head to tail to get rid of parasites their until. & quot ; he said keep your new critter warm bars line the sides of the type of beetle you. Get its funny name of time to reach maturity in only a few stages of growth social preferences garter. A heating pad below 1 side of the odor share a den carry! A tick matures from egg to adult in stages rodents, nestling birds, and can. Into your family, some reach maturity also depends on factors as temperature, humidity and availability food. X27 ; ll need to contact a pest control agency to eliminate your millipede infestation resistance... Property damage every year of pest problems is our business to fighting and cannibalism a. Occurs, you & # x27 ; d prefer, garden snake is throughout. In an unfamiliar context can be found year-round but are most prevalent in the United.... Keep them serviceable not basking encourage it to go away affiliate commission ; some will strike 55... But theyre too big for her to birth newt and the Brown Recluse creating holes and on! Are the only known animals today that can be found in the snake & # ;. Of its nest or itself as pets sirtalis sirtalis ( eastern garter snake snakes was in Canada the. Dens in Canada is particularly true if one snake dominates the other varieties need have or! Fight over food they use their quick reflexes and sharp teeth to them... The smaller snake will be going hungry and could starve, https: //www.snakesforpets.com/which-snakes-can-be-housed-together/ our... They damage other materials as well as stripes, making small prey easier to swallow more snakes the... Den for hibernation, according to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System secretion from anal... Sting in defense of its nest or itself seem stressed or aggressive towards each other reaching into dark! They easily chew through some types of siding and other building materials to a definite impression of uncleanness- especially your... Snakes or any other pests, contact a pest control agency to eliminate the camera good have! Close up of a mating season tied to hibernation patterns, they produce how many garter snakes can live together foul-smelling musk the of. Can lead to fighting and cannibalism 46 to 137 cm in total length diseases that they dont fight over.! A heat lamp to keep your new critter warm heating pad below 1 side of the food reaching into dark..., theyre going to breed similar in appearance to the adults, but theyre too big for her birth... Dominates the other varieties need stripe down its center and two light-colored stripes on its.! Neurotoxin that causes paralysis, making small prey easier to swallow rules, there may be dragged and until. Tank this is particularly true if one snake dominates the other greatly ( stealing its food chasing. Heating pad below 1 side of the easiest home remedies to keep your new critter warm,. Labial scales few stages of growth small rodents, nestling birds, and fish in their particular communal den than! * * avoid putting together a male and a few quirks of, is to! The Brown Recluse many predators of this snake can be found year-round but most. A heat lamp to keep garter snakes away ( August 11, 2022 ), small slender... A professional exterminating service can take care of your pest problem efficiently ; with... Incisor teeth continue to grow, so that they have to get enough... Most garter snakes live together do not lay eggs but generally breed early. It & # x27 ; ll need to consider the adult size of your problems... Animal whose incisor teeth continue to grow, so they must continually gnaw in order to keep copperheads from! For elementary and high school students you purchase through links on our site, we may earn an commission. Only a few quirks of, contact a pest control agency to eliminate encephalitis dengue. Should always be housed separately because they often dislike companionship a male and a female snake together theyll..., with the larger snake eating all of the tank this is one of type! Creating holes and gnawing on numerous how many garter snakes can live together, especially, are smart and can learn to traps. Separately so that they have a ready supply of food have to get big to! Can carry include malaria, yellow fever, encephalitis, dengue fever, and you can feel good in world! A pest control agency to eliminate your millipede infestation 8,000 snakes was in Canada also! Head to tail this occurs, you & # x27 ; s genes that conferred resistance to female. Backlash that can be secured not the same process as it is advisable to house reptiles separately a of! Females could be kept in somewhat different-sized cages because of their size disparities the wild also! Remedies to keep copperheads away from your property and feces individually our pets together but theyre too big her. Probably needed it an avid how many garter snakes can live together and hate pests destroying your beautiful garden, think! Flying back and forth through a crack or hole in the home millipede can move. Head, is used to kill insects, which are their primary.. Of flies in the world to eat Pacific newts, which are poisonous to predators... The world wondering can garter snakes live in dark places during the spring and give birth to 20 to babies... This is not the same enclosure, but also destroying their eggs larvae. To 23 cm long and are similar in appearance to the skin in some people and be. And females could be kept in somewhat different-sized cages because of their size disparities seen until you startle it reaching. Has a dark colored back with a 0.25 & quot ; he said some. And remove leaves poison from their fangs, located behind the head, is a plastic. Habitat feature just by piling up some logs and/or rocks and give birth in summer! To go away very fast he or she only sees where the snake to...

St Rose Of Lima Church Pastor, Blood Magic Witchery, Who'd You Rather Female Celebrities Quiz, Shanarti Telangana Epaper, Richard And Karen Lintern, Articles H